Finance and inequality : Theory and evidence

This paper critically reviews the literature on finance and inequality, highlighting substantive gaps in the literature. Finance plays a crucial role in most theories of persistent inequality. Unsurprisingly, therefore, economic theory provides a r...

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Bibliographic Details
Main Authors:	Demirgüç-Kunt, Asli, Levine, Ross
Format:	Policy Research Working Paper
Language:	English
Published:	2012
Subjects:	ACCESS TO CREDIT ACCESS TO EXTERNAL FINANCE ACCESS TO FINANCE ACCESS TO FINANCIAL SERVICES ADVERSE SELECTION ANNUAL EARNINGS BANK BRANCHES BANK COMPETITION BANKING SERVICES BANKING SYSTEM BANKING SYSTEMS BANKS BEQUEST BIASES BLACK WORKERS BORROWER BORROWING BUSINESS ACUMEN BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES CAPITAL ACCUMULATION CAPITAL INVESTMENT CAPITAL INVESTMENTS CAPITAL MARKETS CASH FLOW COLLATERAL COMMERCIAL BANK COMMERCIAL BANKS CONSUMERS CONTRIBUTIONS CREDIT CONSTRAINTS CREDIT MARKET CREDIT MARKETS CREDIT PROGRAM CREDIT PROGRAMS CREDIT RATIONING CREDIT-SCORING DEBTS DEPOSIT DEREGULATION DIMINISHING RETURNS DIRECT CREDIT DIRECTED CREDIT DISCRIMINATION DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH DIVERSIFICATION DURABLE GOODS EARNINGS ECONOMIC ACTIVITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY ECONOMIC GROWTH ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY ECONOMIC OUTCOMES ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE ECONOMIC THEORY ECONOMIES OF SCALE ELIGIBILITY CRITERION EMPLOYER EMPLOYERS ENDOWMENTS ENROLLMENT ENTREPRENEUR ENTREPRENEURIAL ABILITY ENTREPRENEURIAL ACTIVITIES ENTREPRENEURIAL ACTIVITY ENTREPRENEURIAL BEHAVIOR ENTREPRENEURIAL EFFORT ENTREPRENEURIAL OPPORTUNITIES ENTREPRENEURS ENTRY BARRIERS EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY EQUILIBRIUM EXPECTED RETURN EXPENDITURES EXTERNAL FINANCE EXTERNALITIES EXTERNALITY FAMILIES FAMILY INCOME FINANCE EDUCATION FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS FINANCIAL CONSTRAINT FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS FINANCIAL DEPTH FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENT FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENTS FINANCIAL GLOBALIZATION FINANCIAL INNOVATION FINANCIAL INNOVATIONS FINANCIAL INSTITUTION FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS FINANCIAL INTERMEDIARIES FINANCIAL INTERMEDIARY FINANCIAL INTERMEDIATION FINANCIAL LIBERALIZATION FINANCIAL MARKET FINANCIAL MARKETS FINANCIAL REGULATIONS FINANCIAL SECTOR POLICIES FINANCIAL SECTOR REFORMS FINANCIAL SERVICES FINANCIAL SYSTEM FINANCIAL SYSTEMS FINANCIAL TRANSACTIONS FINANCING NEEDS FIXED COST FIXED COSTS FORMAL FINANCIAL SECTOR FUTURE RESEARCH GDP GDP PER CAPITA GINI COEFFICIENT GREATER ACCESS GROWTH OPPORTUNITIES GROWTH RATE HOUSEHOLD ACCESS HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES HOUSEHOLD WELFARE HOUSEHOLDS HUMAN CAPITAL IMPERFECT CREDIT INCOME LEVEL INCOME LEVELS INCOMES INCREASE IN INCOME INEFFICIENCY INEQUALITIES INEQUALITY INHERITANCE INTEREST RATES INTERNATIONAL BANK INTERNATIONAL FINANCE INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES INVESTMENT RETURNS LABOR MARKET LABOR MARKETS LACK OF ACCESS LANDLESS HOUSEHOLDS LENDER LENDERS LEVEL OF ASSETS LIABILITY LIMITED ACCESS LIMITED ACCESS TO FINANCE LIQUIDITY LOAN LOAN DECISION LOCAL BANKS LORENZ CURVE LOW INCOME LOW-INCOME LOW-INCOME INDIVIDUALS LOWER-INCOME FAMILIES LOWER-INCOME WORKERS MARGINAL COST MARGINAL PROPENSITY TO SAVE MARKET CONDITIONS MARKET CONSTRAINTS MICRO-CREDIT MICRO-ENTERPRISES MICRO-ENTREPRENEURS MICROCREDIT MICROECONOMIC ANALYSES MICROFINANCE MICROFINANCE INSTITUTION MICROFINANCE INSTITUTIONS MICROFINANCE LOANS MONOPOLY MORAL HAZARD NEW BUSINESSES NEW ENTREPRENEURS OVERHEAD COSTS PER CAPITA INCOME PHYSICAL ASSETS PHYSICAL CAPITAL POLITICAL ECONOMY POOR BORROWERS PROBABILITY PRODUCT MARKETS PRODUCTIVITY INCREASES PROFITABILITY PROPERTY RIGHTS PUBLIC EDUCATION PUBLIC GOODS RATE OF RETURN RATES OF RETURN RECEIPT RENTS REPAYMENT RESERVE BANK RESOURCE ALLOCATION RURAL BRANCHES SALES SAVERS SAVING BEHAVIOR SAVINGS SAVINGS BEHAVIOR SAVINGS RATE SAVINGS RATES SECURITIES SELF-EMPLOYMENT SKILLED WORKERS SMALL BUSINESS SMALL BUSINESSES SMALL ENTERPRISES START-UP TAX BURDEN TAX RATE TAX RATES TAX REVENUES TOTAL OUTPUT TRANSACTION TRANSACTION COSTS TRANSACTIONS COSTS TRANSITION ECONOMIES VALUABLE VILLAGE VILLAGES WAGE WAGE RATES WAGES WEALTH
Online Access:	http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/main?menuPK=64187510&pagePK=64193027&piPK=64187937&theSitePK=523679&menuPK=64187510&searchMenuPK=64187283&siteName=WDS&entityID=000158349_20090618110843 http://hdl.handle.net/10986/4161

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Summary:	This paper critically reviews the literature on finance and inequality, highlighting substantive gaps in the literature. Finance plays a crucial role in most theories of persistent inequality. Unsurprisingly, therefore, economic theory provides a rich set of predictions concerning both the impact of finance on inequality and about the relevant mechanisms. Although subject to ample qualifications, the bulk of empirical research suggests that improvements in financial contracts, markets, and intermediaries expand economic opportunities and reduce inequality. Yet, there is a shortage of theoretical and empirical research on the potentially enormous impact of formal financial sector policies, such as bank regulations and securities law, on persistent inequality. Furthermore, there is no conceptual framework for considering the joint and endogenous evolution of finance, inequality, and economic growth.

Finance and inequality : Theory and evidence

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